美国管制革新的方法

来源:岁月联盟 作者:杰弗里·吕贝尔斯 时间:2014-10-06

注释:

[1]杰弗里·吕贝尔斯(Jeffrey Lubbers),美利坚大学华盛顿法学院研究员;鄢超.浙江大学光华法学院博士研究生;苏苗罕.中央财经大学法学院讲师。
[2]参见Ronald M. Levin, Administrative Procedure Legislation in 1946 and 1996:Should We Be Jubilant at This Jubilee?,10 Admin. L J. Am. U. 55, 57 - 60 (1996)(讨论商业团体在20世纪80年代和90年代的管制改革争论中的影响)。
[3]美国行政会议作为美国政府的一个机构,存在于1968年到1995年10月间,1995年10月第104届国会拨款委员会终止为其提供运作经费。参见Symposium, Administrative Conference of the United States, 30 Ariz. St. L J. 1 (1998) o2004年10月,这次会议后不久,国会颁布立法再次授权美国行政会议,Pub. L. No. 108-401, 118 Stat. 2255 (2004),但截至2006年2月,并没有拨款。参见Jeffrey S. Lubbers, Consensus-Building in Administrative Law: The Revival of theAdministrative Conference of the U. S.,30 Admin.&Reg. L. News 3(Winter 2005)。
[4]Improving the Environment for Agency Rulemaking(Recommendation No. 93-4),58 Fed. Reg. 4670(Feb. 1,1994).自1968年到1995年,美国行政会议提出了200多项建议,其中许多已被实施。今天在互联网上仍然能找到这些建议,网址:http://www. law. fsu. edu/library/admin/acus/acustoc. htmlo
[5]Elimination of Certain Exemptions from the APA Rulemaking Requirements(Recommendation No. 69-8),38Fed. Reg. 19,782,19 , 784 (July 23,1973).
[6]同上,19,785。联邦政府拨款、贷款和采购项目影响数以百万计的民众的生活和作为一个整体的联邦系统的性质。这种影响的程度,在今天更大,于是1946年颁布了《行政程序法》,但仍然有不少豁免。
[7]同上。
[8]参见,例如,Department of Transportation Regulatory Policies and Procedures, 44 Fed. Reg. 11 ,034(Feb. 26,1979);也可参见Department of Housing and Urban Development, Rulemaking: Policy and Procedures, 24 C. F. R. 10. 1(2005);Department of Labor, Rulemaking, 29 C. F. R. 2.7 (2005);Department of Defense, 32 C. F. R. 296. 3 (2005);Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare,36 Fed. Reg. 2532(Feb. 5,1971);Department of Agriculture, 36 Fed. Reg. 13,804(July24,1971);Department of the Interior, 36 Fed. Reg. 8,336(May 4,1971);Small Business Administration, 36 Fed. Reg. 16,716(Aug. 5,1971)。
[9]42 U. S. C. 421(k) (2).
[10]Small Business and Federal Procurement Competition Enhancement Act of 1984,Pub. L. No. 98-577,302(a),98Stat. 3066, 3076 (codified at 41 U. S. C. 418b (2000)(要求任何“对超越发表采购政策、管制、程序或形式的机构的内部运行程序产生重要影响的或对合同供应商或要约者(offerors)产生重要的成本或行政影响的有关拨款资金开支的采购政策、管制、程序,或形式(包括修正或修改意见)”,只有在60天(通常)的公众评论期之后才能公布。
[11]Recommendation 88-9,54 Fed. Reg. 5207(Feb. 2, 1989).
[12]Regulatory Planning and Review, Exec. Ord. No. 12 , 866,58 Fed. Reg. 51,735(Oct.4, 1993).
[13]布什总统对该项命令作出了修订,取消了副总统参与上述程序的规定。Exec. Order 13,258, 67 Fed. Reg. 9384(Feb. 28,2002)。
[14]参见Agencies’ Use of Alternative Means of Dispute Resolution (Recommendation No. 86-3),51 Fed. Reg. 25,641,25 , 643 (July 16,1986)。
[15]参见下注29-30。
[16]这两封信发表在Jeffrey S. Lubbers, “ If It Didn ’ t Exist, It Would Have to be Invented”-Reviving theAdministrative Conference, 30 Ariz. St. L Rev. 147, 162-67 (1998).两位大法官后来证实支持重建美国行政会议。Oversight Hearing on the Reauthorization of the Administrative Conference of the United States : Hearing Before the Subcomm. onCommercial and Administrative Law of the H. Comm.onthe Judiciary, 108th Cong. 10-17 (2004)(安东尼·斯卡利亚和斯蒂芬·布雷耶的证词)。
[17]Office of the Vice President, Accompanying Report of the National Performance Review: Improving Regulatory Systems(1993) [hereinafter Improving Regulatory Systems],available at http://govinfo. library. unt. edu/npr/library/review. html.
[18]同上注,at REGO1:Create an Interagency Regulatory Coordinating Group。
[19]同上注,at REG02:Encourage More Innovative Approaches to Regulation。
[20]同上注,at REG04: Enhance Public Awareness and Participation。
[21]同上注,at REG05:Streamline Agency Rulemaking Procedures。
[22]同上注,at REG07 : Rank Risks and Engage in“ Anticipatory” Regulatory Planning。
[23]同上注,at REG08: Improve Regulatory Science。
[24]参见Jeffrey S. Lubbers, Better Regulations: The National Performance Review ’ s Regulatory ReformRecommendations, 43 Duke L J. 1165(1994);Improving Regulatory Systems,前注21, at REGO3:Encourage Consensus-Based Rulemaking;前注21 , at REGO6:Encourage Alternative Dispute Resolution When Enforcing Regulations。
[25]Pub. L No. 101-648, 104 Stat. 4969 (codified at 5 U. S. C. 561-570 (2000)).该法案被1996年的《行政争议解决法》永久性再授权,Pub. L No. 104-320, 11,110 Stat. 3873 (codified at 5 U. S. C. 561-570)。
[26]Pub. L No. 101-552, 104 Stat. 2736 (codified primarily in 5 U. S. C. 571-584);被1996年的《行政争议解决法》永久性再授权,Pub. L No. 104-320, 110 Stat.3870。
[27]参见Procedures for Negotiating Proposed Regulations(Recommendation 82-4),47 Fed. Reg. 30, 708(July 15,1982);Procedures for Negotiating Proposed Regulations(Recommendation 85-5),50 Fed. Reg. 52 , 895(Dec. 27,1985)。
[28]参见American Bar Association Resolution urging permanent reauthorization of Administrative Dispute Resolution Act
and Negotiated Rulemaking Act(Feb. 1995)。
[29]关于协商制定规则的优点和缺点,仍然聚讼纷纭。一般参见Symposium, Twenty-Eighth Annual AdministrativeLaw Issue, 46 Duke L. J. 1255 (1997).一些批评认为,协商制定规则允许机构向私人当事方转移太多权力,参见WilliamFunk, Bargaining Toward the New Millennium: Regulatory Negotiation and the Subversion of the Public Interest, 46 Duke
L. J. 1351(1997);William Funk,When Smoke Gets in Your Eyes:Regulatory Negotiation and the Public Interest-EPA’sWoodstove Standards, 18 Envtl. L. 55 (1987 )(认为环境保护署的协商性木柴炉排放量规则超越了清洁空气法规定的界限);Susan Rose-Ackerman, Consensus Versus Incentives: A Skeptical Look at Regulatory Negotiation, 43 Duke L. J. 1206
(1994) . Cary Coglianese质疑经验主义的基本假设:管制协商产生得太快且缺乏诉讼规则。参见Cary Coglianese,Assessing the Advocacy of Negotiated Rulemaking: A Response to Philip Harter, 9 N. Y. U. Envtl. L. J. 386(2001);CaryCoglianese, Assessing Consensus: The Promise and Performance of Negotiated Rulemaking, 46 Duke L. J. 1255(1997)。另一方面,作者们的一些经验主义研究也与批评者们的主张针锋相对。参见Jody Freeman & Laura I. Langbein,Regulatory Negotiation and the Legitimacy Benefit, 9 N. Y. U. Envtl. L. J. 60 ( 2000 )(发现重大的合法性利益);PhilipJ. Harter, A Plumber Responds to the Philosophers: A Comment on Professor Menkel-Meadow’s Essay on DeliberativeDemocracy, 5 Nev. L. J. 379 ( 2004-05)(归纳他对管制协商批评的有关回应观点);Philip J. Harter, Assessing theAssessors: The Actual Performance of Negotiated Rulemaking, 9 N. Y. U. Envtl. L J. 32 (2000)(反驳Coglianese教授);Laura I. Langbein&Cornelius M. Kerwin, Regulatory Negotiation Versus Conventional Rule Making: Claims, Counterclaims,and Empirical Evidence, 10 J. Pub. Admin. Res.&Theory 599 (2000)(发现参与者感觉协商性规则优先于传统性规则,并且比传统性规则更容易被执行);也可参见Andrew P. Morriss, Bruce Yandle, Andrew Dorchak, Choosing How to Regulate,29 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 179, 195-202 (2005)(发现争论双方好的观点,但在大体上支持Coglianese教授与哈特的经验主义辩论);Mark Seidenfeld, Empowering Stakeholders: Limits on Collaboration as the Basis For Flexible Regulation, 41 Wm.&Mary L. Rev. 411, 458 (2000) (“然而,如果被作为一种工具来指导机构的自由裁量权,而不是作为一种替代机制在国家强制力的支持下制定规章,协作程序是最有希望的。”)。对环境保护署协商制定规则的评论,参见Joy Freeman,Collaborative Governance in the Administrative State, 45 UCLA L Rev. 1,33-55(1997)[hereinafter Freeman, CollaborativeGovernance; Siobhan Mee, Comment, Negotiated Rulemaking and Combined Sewer Overflows(CSOs):Consensus SavesOssification?, 25 B. C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 213 (1997)(称赞这个特别协商制定规则的成功)。
[30]参见前注7。
[31]我曾基此与管理和预算办公室坦率交谈。但该办公室正式执行第12866号行政命令,规定机构直接探讨并酌情使用协商机制制定规章,包括协商制定规则。”Exec. Order No. 12,866, 58 Fed. Reg. 51,735, 6(a) (Oct. 4, 1993)。
[32]有关“电子规则制定的崛起’,的简明历史,参见Cary Coglianese, E-Rulemaking: Information Technology and theRegulatory Process, 56 Admin. L. Rev. 353, 363-366 (2004).也可参见Barbara H. Brandon&Robert D. Carlitz, OnlineRulemaking and Other Tools for Strengthening Our Civil Infrastructure, 54 Admin. L Rev. 1421 (2002);Jeffrey S. Lubbers, TheFuture of Electronic Rulemaking: A Research Agenda(Kenne by School of Government, Harvard University, Regulatory PolicyProgram, Paper No. RPP-2002-04, 2002),reprinted in Admin.&Reg. L News, Summer 2002,at 6; Beth Simone Noveck,The Electronic Revolution in Rulemaking, 53 Emory L J. 433 (2004);Stuart W. Shulman, E-Rulemaking: Issues in CurrentResearch and Practice, 28 Int’ I J. of Pub. Admin. 621 (2005);Stephen Zavestoski&Stuart W. Shulman, The Internet andEnvironmental Decision Making: An Introduction, 15 Org.&Env’t 323, 326 (2002)在哈佛大学肯尼迪政府学院的管制政策项目网站,可以链接到这些以及其他许多相关的论文和研究报告,网址:http://www. ksg. harvard. edu/cbg/rpp/erulemaking/papers&reports. htmo
[33]参见5 U. S. C. 574 (2000)。
[34]参见上注,574(j)。
[35]参见上注,573(e)。为了加快雇佣中立者,199年颁布的《行政争议解决法》第7条还修订了防卫机构的竞争性要求(10 U. S. C. 2304(c) (3) (C))和联邦民用机构(41 U.S. C. 253(c) (3) (C))使用非竞争性订约程序订立合同雇佣这些中立者。
[36]参见,5 U. S. C. 572(b) (2000)。
[37]参见,例如,Freeman, Collaborative Governance,前注33; Jody Freeman, The Contracting State, 28 Fla.St. U. L. Rev. 155(2000)[hereinafter Freeman, The Contracting State〕;Jody Freeman, The Private Role in PublicGovernance, 75 N. Y. U. L Rev. 543 (2000);Jody Freeman&Laura I. Langbein, Regulatory Negotiation and the LegitimacyBenefit, 9 N. Y. U. Envtl. L J. 60 (2000)。
[38]Freeman, Collaborative Governance,前注33, at 55-66。也可参见Dennis D. Hirsch, Project XL and the SpecialCase: The EPA’s Untold Success Story, 26 Colum. J. Envtl. L 219 (2001);Nathaniel 0. Keohane, Richard L Revesz&RobertStavin, The Choice of Regulatory Instruments in Environmental Policy, 22 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 313 (1998).更重要的观点参见Rena I. Steinzor, Dialogue, Regulatory Reinvention and Project XL: Does the Emperor Have Any Clothes?, 26Envtl. L Rep. 10,527(1996)。
[39]类似的方法被增加到《濒危物种法案》1982年的修订案中-“栖息地保护计划”(HCD)的协商,16 U. S. C. 1539(a)(2)(A) (2000)。参见,例如,J. B. Ruhl, Taking Adaptive Management Seriously: A Case Study of the EndangeredSpecies Act, 52 U. Kan. L Rev. 1249, 1273 - 84 (2004)(讨论HCP项目尚未挖掘的潜力)。
[40]行政部门的雇员人数在2005年9月是263.6万。参见http://www. opm. gov/feddata/html/2005/september/table9. asp. Between 1953 and 1961,总人数在1958年的238.2万和1953年的255. 8万之间徘徊。参见U. S. Dep’ t ofCommerce, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial times to 1970, Part 2,available at http://www2. census. gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p2-01. pdf。
[41]Freeman, The Contracting State,同前注41,187页。
[42]Freeman, The Contracting State,同前注41。
[43]5 U. S. C.553(a)(2)。也可参见前注8-12和相应的内容。
[44]Freeman, The Contracting State,同前注41,166页。
[45]参见,例如,Douglas Michael, Federal Agency Use of Audited Self-Regulation as a Regulatory Technique, 47Admin. L. Rev. 171(1995);Paul R. Verkuil, The Nondelegable Duty to Govern(Cardozo Sch. of Law, Institute for AdvancedLegal Studies, Working Paper No. 149,2005),available at http://ssrn. com/abstract=871455。
[46]参见Office of Management and Budget, Final Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review(2004),available athttp://www. whitehouse. gov/omb/infore g/infopoltech. html
[47]参见,例如,Jeffrey Lovitky, The Problems of Government Contracting for Consulting Services, 14 Pub. Cont. L. J. 332(1984)(详细论述使用政府合同供应商而不是雇员统治政府机构的法律并发症);William V. Luneburg, Contracting bythe Federal Government for Legal Services: A Legal and Empirical Analysis, 63 Notre Dame L. Rev. 399,410-35(1988)(谈论类似的问题)。

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