细菌多重耐药外排泵抑制剂研究进展
【摘要】 细菌耐药性,尤其是多重耐药性(multi?drug resistance,MDR)已经成为非常严重的医疗问题,而多种类型细菌外排泵(efflux pumps)的存在是细菌多重耐药的重要机制,因此寻找有应用前景的外排泵抑制剂(efflux pump inhibitors,EPI)是十分必要且迫切的。目前已经发现外排泵抑制剂的作用机制分为:(1)干扰外排泵组装;(2)阻断外排泵能量来源;(3)阻碍底物通过外排通道;(4)机制未知。本文按照作用机制对已经发现的细菌多重耐药外排泵抑制剂的特点进行分述。
【关键词】 细菌多重耐药性 外排泵 抑制剂
Advances in the research on
bacterial multi?drug resistance efflux pump inhibitors
ABSTRACT Bacterial resistance to antibiotics, especially the multi?drug resistance (MDR) has become a serious problem of healthcare. The existence of various kinds of efflux pumps is one of the important mechanisms of bacterial resistance. It is exigent to discover the efflux pump inhibitors which could be used in clinic. So far, various kinds of efflux pump inhibitors have been discovered. Their mechanisms of action are (1) interfering the assembling of efflux pumps, (2) blocking the energy supply of efflux pumps, (3) hindering the transit of substrates through the efflux tunnel and (4) unknown mechanism. According to the mechanisms of action, the characters of bacterial multi?drug resistance efflux pump inhibitors discovered by far were summarized in this review.
KEY WORDS Bacterial multi?drug resistance; Efflux pump; Inhibitor
伴随着抗生素的广泛使用,各种类型的耐药菌不断出现,抗感染面临着严峻的挑战。细菌外排作用是细菌产生耐药性的重要途径。目前已经发现了5个外排泵类型,它们是:ATP结合盒超家族(ATP?binding cassette superfamily,ABC),小多重耐药家族(small multidrug resistance family,SMR),主要易化子超家族(major facilitator superfamily,MFS),多药及毒性化合物外排家族(multidrug and toxic compound extrusion family,MATE)和耐药节结化细胞分化家族(resistance/nodulation/cell division family,RND)[1]。从底物特异性上看,外排泵又分为特异性外排泵和多重耐药外排泵。前者如包括肠杆菌和铜绿假单胞菌在内的多种革兰阴性菌表达的Tet A?E,G,H外排泵,对四环素类抗生素有特异外排作用;后者分布更为广泛,如铜绿假单胞菌MexAB?OprM外排泵,金葡菌NorA外排泵[2]等等。多重耐药外排泵底物谱广,并且可以外排大量的结构迥异的抗生素及其他有毒物质,例如铜绿假单胞菌MexAB?OprM外排泵的外排底物有大环内酯类、喹诺酮类、四环素类、β?内酰胺类抗生素以及氯霉素、林可霉素、新生霉素等等。
多重耐药外排泵广泛存在于各种病原菌中,对细菌的药物敏感性以及细菌性感染的临床治疗影响很大。例如过量表达MexAB?OprM外排蛋白的铜绿假单胞菌菌株比MexAB?OprM的基因敲除菌株的左氧氟沙星MIC高64倍[3],临床分离的高表达NorA外排泵的金葡菌株较野生菌株对诺氟沙星和环丙沙星MIC分别提高了16倍和8~16倍[4]。同时,外排泵的存在降低了胞内抗生素浓度,低浓度抗生素环境中易产生耐药突变株。
目前已经发现了一些具有细菌外排泵抑制活性的化合物,但目前还没有一种能够用于临床治疗,外排泵抑制剂类药物的研发工作任重而道远。本文概述了迄今发现的具有细菌多重耐药外排泵抑制活性的化合物以及它们的作用特点。
1 干扰外排泵组装的外排泵抑制剂
Globomycin是一种链霉菌来源的环肽结构的抗生素,它是脂蛋白信号肽酶LspA的抑制剂,通过抑制LspA从而抑制含有LspA剪接位点的膜融合脂蛋白前体的加工。大肠埃希菌(Escherichia coli)和产气肠杆菌(Enterobacter aerogenes)组成性表达RND型外排泵AcrAB?TolC的组件AcrA前体含有LspA的剪接位点,在globomycin的作用下不能形成成熟的AcrA,也不能和外排泵的其他组分结合形成外排泵,抑制了外排泵的作用。报道75μmol/L globo?mycin能够使表达AcrAB?TolC的产气肠杆菌的氯霉素MIC降低至原值的1/4,其外排泵抑制能力与CCCP(100μmol/L)相同,低于PAβN(100μmol/L,MIC降低至原值的1/8)[5]。
2 阻断外排泵能量来源的外排泵抑制剂(图1)
除ABC型外排泵是依赖ATP水解驱动外,其余四种外排泵SMR、MFS、MATE和RND均由质子动力势驱动[1]。对细菌多重耐药外排泵抑制剂的研究发现,以阻断外排泵能量来源为机制的外排泵抑制剂主要针对质子动力势,按照作用机制又分为解偶联剂和离子载体两种类型。这类抑制剂在抑制细菌外排泵的同时也会抑制机体正常的质子动力势驱动的生理反应,缺乏特异性,因此难以用于临床治疗。
2.1 解偶联剂
(1)化学合成来源的抑制剂 羰基?氰?间?氯苯腙(carbonyl cyanide m?chlorophenylhydrazone,CCCP)。分子解离状态下,负电荷分布于分子中的多个原子,分子周围的电场很弱,可在磷脂膜两侧自由扩散,传递质子以破坏跨膜电化学梯度,因此它是很强的解偶联剂。CCCP作为外排泵抑制剂对SMR型外排泵(如大肠埃希菌QacE)、MFS型外排泵(如金葡菌NorA)、MATE型外排泵(如多形拟杆菌NorM)和RND型外排泵(如铜绿假单胞菌MexAB?OprM,大肠埃希菌AcrAB和AcrEF,产气肠杆菌AcrAB?TolC,空肠弯曲杆菌CmeABC)等均有抑制作用[5~10]。例如,100μmol/L的CCCP可以使表达AcrAB?TolC的产气肠杆菌的氯霉素MIC降低至原值的1/4[5]。
(2)临床药物来源的抑制剂 兰索拉唑(lansoprazole)和奥美拉唑(omeprazole)临床上用于治疗消化性溃疡。已证明它们可以抑制金葡菌NorA外排泵,在100μg/ml浓度下可使NorA高表达株的诺氟沙星、环丙沙星和左氧氟沙星MIC降低至原值的1/4~1/8,推测其机制与CCCP相似[4]。此外,兰索拉唑还可以抑制和NorA同源的粪肠球菌(Enterococcus faecalis)EmeA外排泵[11]。
2.2 离子载体
由链霉菌产生的valinomycin和nigericin均为钾离子载体。Valinomycin能与K+配位结合形成脂溶性复合物,穿过质膜,将膜外K+运送到膜内,从而破坏膜电位Δψ。Nigericin可以使H+和K+交换,破坏pH梯度。两者均可以干扰跨膜电化学质子梯度,抑制外排泵。文献报道它们可以抑制金葡菌QacA外排泵,在4μmol/L浓度下使细胞内乙啡啶的积累量提高约3倍[12],它们还可以抑制肺炎链球菌(Streptococcus阻断外排泵能量来源的外排泵抑制剂pneumoniae)对氟喹诺酮类等化合物的外排泵。
3 阻碍底物通过外排泵通道的外排泵抑制剂(图2)
3.1 化学合成来源的此类抑制剂
二胺类化合物L?Phe?L?Arg?β?naphthylamine(PAβN,即MC?207110)是发现最早的铜绿假单胞菌MexAB?OprM、MexCD?OprJ和MexEF?OprN等RND型外排泵抑制剂,40μg/ml的PAβN可将上述三种外排泵高表达株的左氧氟沙星MIC降低至原值的1/60,其机制是结合外排泵相应位点以阻止其他底物与该位点的结合[3]。PAβN除了能抑制铜绿假单胞菌RND型外排泵,还可抑制其他一些革兰阴性菌的RND型外排泵,如沙门菌属AcrAB、大肠埃希菌、产气肠杆菌AcrAB?TolC等[13~17]。当然,并非所有革兰阴性菌的RND型外排泵都可以受到PAβN的抑制,例如其不能抑制类鼻疽伯克菌(Burkholderia pseudomallei)的RND型外排泵[18],也不能抑制嗜麦芽寡养单胞菌(Stenotrophomonas maltophilia)的SmeDEF外排泵对环丙沙星和四环素的外排作用[19],甚至还会增加铜绿假单胞菌MexXY?OprM外排泵对氨基糖苷类药物的外排作用,其确切的作用机制有待证明[20]。D?Orn?D?hPhe?3?aminoquinoline(MC?02595)是另一种具有抑制铜绿假单胞菌RND型外排泵活性的二胺类化合物,活性和PAβN相似,在5~10μg/ml均可以使左氧氟沙星MIC降低至原值的1/8倍,但是这两种二胺类化合物对小鼠表现出明显的毒性,因此不能直接用于临床治疗[21]。经过结构优化,获得了诸如MC?04124的活性不减,毒性更小(毒性降至原值的1/4以下)的化合物[21]。对MC?04124已经进行了小鼠急毒和大鼠药动学试验[22],但未见后续研究报道。
某些喹啉(quinoline)衍生物对产气肠杆菌和肺炎克雷伯菌(Klebsiella pneumoniae)临床分离株的AcrAB?TolC外排泵具有抑制活性,如某些喹啉的吡啶[23]、烷氧氨基[24]、烷氧基[25]和硫代烷氧基[26]衍生物。通过构效关系研究推测这类衍生物的作用机制可能是结合或者遮盖外排泵中的底物结合位点,阻止底物的运输[27]。目前未见关于此类化合物的临床研究报道。
3.2 临床药物来源的此类抑制剂
利血平(reserpine)是一种生物碱,临床上用于治疗高血压。从目前报道显示,利血平对于MFS以及ABC型外排泵具有抑制作用[28]。Ahmed等通过特定位点氨基酸取代推测出了利血平在枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)Bmr外排泵上的结合位点[29],其作用机制为竞争性抑制。已有的报道证明利血平可以抑
1:二胺类(MC?207110,MC?02595,MC?04124); 2:部分具活性的喹啉衍生物; 3:利血平; 4:维拉帕米
图2 阻碍底物通过外排泵通道的外排泵抑制剂制多种多重耐药外排泵,如MFS型外排泵枯草芽孢杆菌Bmr、金葡菌NorA、肺炎链球菌PmrA以及ABC型外排泵粪肠球菌EfrAB、Non?O1霍乱弧菌VcaM等[28,30~34]。利血平活性良好,20μg/ml浓度时可以使表达NorA外排泵的金葡菌诺氟沙星MIC降低至原值的1/16[4]。然而对于人体而言,它实现外排泵抑制活性所需要的浓度可导致神经毒性,因此未能直接用于临床治疗[35]。
维拉帕米(verapamil)在临床上属于IV类抗心律失常药,为钙离子内流阻滞剂。对维拉帕米抑制P?糖蛋白(P?glycoprotein)的研究表明,维拉帕米与外排泵有相应的结合位点。文献报道其可以抑制多种MFS型(如粪肠球菌EmeA和金葡菌NorA)及ABC型(如粪肠球菌EfrAB,结核分枝杆菌DrrAB、Rv2686c?Rv2687c?Rv2688c)外排泵[4,11,28,32,36,37]。100μg/ml维拉帕米可以使表达NorA外排泵的金葡菌诺氟沙星MIC降低至原值的1/4[4],但目前未见将对其进行临床研究的报道。
4 机制未知的外排泵抑制剂
这类抑制剂机制尚未明确,也没有用于临床研究的报道(图3)。
4.1 天然产物来源的此类抑制剂
一些黄酮类化合物能够抑制金葡菌NorA外排泵的活性,如小檗属植物中的黄酮木脂素类化合物5′?methoxyhydnocarpin?D[38],植物Dalea versicolor的代谢产物4′,6′?dihydroxy?3′,5′?dimethyl?2′?methoxychalcon[39],从老鹳草属植物Geranium caespitosum中提取的一些polyacylated neohesperidosides[40],以及天然产物epicatechin gallate和epigallocatechin gallate[41]。
能够抑制金葡菌NorA外排泵的还有从麻风树属植物Jatropha elliptica中提取的生物碱2,6?dimethyl?4?phenylpyridine?3,5?dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester[42],来源于小檗属植物的卟啉类化合物脱镁叶绿甲酯酸A(pheophorbid A)[38],以及从迷迭香属植物迷迭香中提取的松香烷二萜类化合物鼠尾草酸(carnosic acid)[43]。
另外Dalea versicolor的代谢产物3,5,4′?
1:5′?Methoxyhydnocarpin?D; 2:4′,6′?Dihydroxy?3′,5′?dimethyl?2′?methoxychalcon; 3:Epicatechin gallate &
epigallocatechin gallate; 4:2,6?dimethyl?4?phenylpyridine?3,5?dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester; 5:Pheophorbide A;
6:Carnosic acid; 7:一种具活性的芳基哌嗪类化合物; 8:吩塞秦、噻吨类药物(氯丙嗪和顺式?氟哌噻吨)
图3 机制未知的外排泵抑制剂trimethoxy?trans?stilbene可以抑制蜡状芽孢杆菌(Bacillus cereus)的外排泵[39]。
4.2 化学合成来源的此类抑制剂
某些芳基哌嗪类化合物(arylpiperazines)被证明具有抑制大肠埃希菌RND型外排泵AcrAB和AcrEF的活性,其机制尚未明确[8]。在最近报道中发现1?(1?naphthylmethyl)?piperazine还可以抑制弗氏柠檬酸杆菌(Citrobacter freundii)、产气肠杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌等临床分离株的外排泵[44]。
Influx Inc.经过对9600种结构各异的化合物进行筛选,发现了数种金葡菌NorA外排泵抑制剂[35]。这些抑制剂提高环丙沙星活性的能力超过了利血平,但是它们的机制均未研究清楚。
4.3 临床用药来源的此类抑制剂
吩塞秦(phenothiazine)、噻吨类药物(thioxanthene)为多巴胺受体拮抗剂和钙调素抑制剂,临床上作为安定药和止吐药。研究证明这两类药物(如氯丙嗪、氟奋乃静、丙氯拉嗪、顺式?和反式?氟哌噻吨)能够抑制金葡菌NorA外排泵。尽管已经证明这些物质具有破坏质子动力势的能力,但试验推测这并不是这些物质外排泵抑制作用的主要机制,主要机制可能是与外排泵直接作用等其他机制[45]。另据最新报道,吩塞秦类药物硫利达嗪(thioridazine)也可以通过抑制外排泵提高甲氧西林耐药金葡菌的药物敏感性[46]。
5 展望
尽管已经发现了一些多重耐药外排泵抑制剂,但目前还没有用于临床的报道。许多在体外活性良好的外排泵抑制剂由于安全性、特异性、机制明确性等诸多问题未能用于临床治疗。尽管外排泵抑制剂用于临床治疗还有很长的路要走,但其应用前景还是很乐观的。因为外排泵抑制剂不仅可以提高具有外排泵介导耐药性的病原细菌的药物敏感性,恢复抗生素的抗菌活性,还有利于减少由外排作用促进的耐药突变株的产生。因此,寻找有应用前景的外排泵抑制剂对于细菌性感染的治疗而言有着深远的意义。
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