从文化翻译观看汉语习语的英译
[Abstract] Domestication and foreignization are the terms brought up by an American scholar L.Venuti to describe the two different translation strategies. The former refers to translation in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers, while the latter designates the type of translation in which a target text deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the source text. Translation, generally speaking, is not only a transition between different languages, but also transferring information of culture in the source language to that in the target language. And the nature of translation is cultural communication. Since 1980s, many scholars put forward their own opinions upon domestication and foreignization under the light of cultural translation. In their opinion, the fundamental task of translation is to transfer the original contents and cultures completely into the target language. During translation, translators should consider not only differences between languages but also those between cultures. Therefore, translators should put more emphasis on foreignization. Take Chinese idioms for example. Since the exchanges among different countries and regions become more and more frequent, translators should put more emphasis on foreignization in translating Chinese idioms into English. During translation, translators should facsimile as much as possible the cultural features and connotations of Chinese idioms. In this way, English people can know more and better about China and really contact with the sophisticated Chinese culture. Meanwhile, to some extent, foreignization can help to spread unique Chinese cultural message and even help to enhance cultural communication between China and foreign countries.
[Key Words] domestication; foreignization; cultural translation theory; Chinese idioms
【摘 要】归化与异化是两种不同的翻译策略。译界有许多学者对此发表了许多的观点。归化与异化之争由来已久，从古至今，从西方到，归化与异化都是学者译者们争论的热门话题之一。翻译基本上是一种语言转换活动但又不是一项纯粹的语言转换活动，它还牵涉到种种非语言因素，特别是牵涉到种种文化因素。翻译不仅是语言层面更是文化层面上的一种活动，其本质是文化交流。自20世纪80年代后，许多学者针对归化与异化提出了应该从文化角度来审视二者的观点。孙致礼在《翻译的异化与归化》中提到: “翻译的根本任务是准确而完整地传达原作的 ‘思想’和 ‘风味’。在翻译中，译者不仅要考虑语言的差异，还要密切注视文化的差异，力求最大限度地保存原文所蕴涵的异域文化特色。如果不是万不得已，特别不宜归化，而要尽可能真实地传达出来。” “归化主要表现在 ‘纯语言层面’，在 ‘文化层面’上则应力求最大限度的异化。”以汉语习语为例，在当今跨文化交流不断的趋势下，译者在翻译中应多从文化的角度考虑，适度加以应用 “异化”策略及其方法，尽可能重现汉语习语的文化特征及内涵，让西方人更多更好地了解中国，接触中华民族博大精深的文化，同时也有利于传播中国独有的文化气息，进而有利于实现中国与世界各国进一步交流。
[关键词] 归化;异化;文化翻译观;汉语习语
1. On cultural translation theory
Cultural translation is discussed in the broad context of culture. It includes an analysis of the surface and deep structures of culture and language, and the examination of the internal context between culture and translation as well as the objective laws pertaining to their interaction. In late 1980s, many scholars began to give their own opinions on translation from the perspective of culture. Umberto Eco considered that translation equals to culture, that is to say, the translation activity is a kind of cultural transportation. “ Lambert and Robyns held that translation should be treated as not only an activity between two languages but also a communicative activity between two cultures. Nida pointed out: for a truly successful translation, bicultural ability is much more important than bilingual ability” [1] p70. Some scholars suggested that culture but not text should be regarded as the translation unit and translators should pay more attention to culture during translation. To some extent, those views became symbols of formation of cultural translation theory.
Different cultures have different features. Culture indicates a nation, region or a race’s feature. And the communication of different cultures needs translation. Translation is the production and intermedium of cultural communication. “Translation reflects the features of both cultures when one language and culture is translated into another. And the aim of translation is to transfer the source culture into the target culture” [2] p24. “Wang Zuoliang pointed out: The difference between two cultures is the most difficult thing in translation, so translators should have a good knowledge of both the foreign culture and the native culture. The more translators understand the cultural information, the more possibly they can master the language and reproduce the original culture. Han Ziman viewed that the features of culture have an effect on the whole translation activities and the vise versa is also true” [3] p116. Therefore, the transference of cultural information should play a key role in translation.
In the broad context of culture, translation means not only one language being transferred into another but also a communication between two cultures. And the purpose of translation is to promote cultural communication. Translation is a kind of cultural activity that translators reproduce the original culture in the target text. Cultural information but not language is the object of translation. “During translation, translators should translate the ‘form’ and ‘essence’ of the original language into the target language directly and exactly. i.e., translation should reserve the cultural difference and reproduce the original ‘foreignness’ as much as possible” [4] p37. Here, “‘foreignness’ means that translation should keep as much as possible the cultural features and information of the source text” [5] p136. All in all, in cultural translation, translators should take culture into consideration and reconstruct the source culture as much as possible into the target language during translation.
2. Domestication and foreignization under the light of cultural translation
2.1 The origin and definition of domestication and foreignization
The pair of terms, domestication and foreignization, was mentioned in The Translator Invisibility written by American famous translator L.Venuti in 1995, which were used to describe two kinds of translation strategies. Their taking out were on the basis of Germany philosopher Schleier Marcher, who viewed that there were two kinds of translation, one was “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him.” the other was ” the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him.”[6] p21 .According to Marcher’s opinion, the former sentence refers to mean the reader-oriented translation while the latter the author-oriented one. The reader-oriented translation refers to the translation that translators pay more attention to the target language readers’ conventions and understandings while the author-oriented one means to the translation that translators take the source language author’s ideas and style into account. However, he never used special terms to summarize them. It was Schuttleworth and Cowie who defined them. They gave “domestication” a definition as “a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers.”[7] p21 Venuti considered that “domestication” contained derogatory meaning, because “it is identified with a polity common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being ‘accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other” [8] p21. In other words, according to Venuti’s opinion, “domestication” used in translation indicates the meaning of the “dominant culture” recombining the language and cultural features of the source text with the purpose of dominating the “weak culture”.
For “foreignization”, Schuttleworth and Cowie defined it as “a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions be retaining something of the foreignness of the original.” Venuti regarded it as a challenging strategy to “domestication” and its effect is to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad.” [9] p21 In translation, translators should reserve the language and culture features of the source text; therefore, readers of the target text can feel some “strangeness” of other cultures.
The definition of domestication and foreignizafion has changed when they are introduced into China. “And the scope of reference is enlarged .It refers to not only the translation from foreign languages to English but also the translation from one language to another, especially from Chinese to other languages”[10] p22. What’s more, the elements of cultural inequality never draw people’s great attention and even are forgotten.
From the exploration and discussion mentioned above, now we can sum up domestication and foreignization in this way: they are two different translation strategies used by translators according to different aspects such as the difference between two languages and cultures, translation purpose, type of text, intention of the author and readers of the target language etc. “Domestication” holds that translation should be in accordance with the target language and culture and get rid of the barriers as much as possible so as to meet the target language readers demands; “foreignization” views that translation should reserve the cultural features of source language so as to enrich the target language and culture and meet the target language readers’ demand of “strangeness”. “Domestication and foreignization is a pair of complementary translation strategies that don’t reject against each other” [11] p68.
2.2 Foreignization-oriented strategy under the light of cultural translation
Generally speaking, domesticating translation gives the reader more convenience and saves the reader much time. In the global information age, convenience and briefness become more and more important. To some extent information is money and time is money. So it seems that we should use domestication strategy as much as we can in translation. However, generally speaking, foreignizing translation gives the reader more information than the domesticating one. From the perspective of information theory, only new information is useful information. If the translation can only provide “old” information, it is not so valuable. Supposing the source text and the target text convey the same information, the target reader still get something new if what he or she reads is a foreignized translation. Meanwhile, with the development of high technology and the improved means of communication, more and more people want to learn foreign culture and knowledge and in assimilating and learning foreign language and culture, foreignization is useful and essential. In China, with the policy of “reform and openings to the world”, China communicates more frequently with foreign countries. More and more foreigners take great interest in Chinese culture and urgently want to acquire Chinese culture knowledge. It is foreignized translation that can meet this need much better. The reasons are as follows:
First, the nature of foreignization determines that its dealing with the elements with obvious cultural features in the source text should inevitably results in bringing some new expressions and cultural connotations in the target text, i.e., bringing some “foreignness”. Since exchanges among different countries become more and more frequently, nowadays, many sorts of languages attain enrichments to some extent. And foreignization translation plays an important role in the process. For example, terms and expressions like “Internet, Gene, blue print, killing two birds with one stone, crocodile tears” enriched Chinese and “qigong, taijiquan, kongfu, typhoon, tofu” etc. enriched English. And translators use foreignization to make many “foreign” words gradually be accepted and extensively be spread to the public. In some way, foreignization is beneficial for absorbing new elements of foreign language. Once they were accepted, expressions of the target language would be enriched and communication further promoted.
In addition, the gaps among different countries become smaller and smaller because of frequent international communication in politics, economics, culture, etc. And globalization is also becoming the tendency of social development. Therefore, knowing more about foreign countries becomes an inevitable part of life. Foreignization is beneficial not only for introducing native culture to foreigners but also for making native people be familiar with foreign cultures. In this way, people from different countries can communicate with each other better. For example, if “铁饭碗”and “下海”are translated directly into “iron rice bowl” and “to jump into the sea of business”, the translations reserve the image as well as the meaning of the source language. Meanwhile, the unique Chinese culture has been introduced to English readers. Take an English idiom “to paint the lily” as another example. If it is translated into“多此一举”,the symbolic meaning of “lily” in western countries would not be known to the Chinese. So it is better to translate it into“为百合花上色” so that Chinese people can know the symbolic meaning of “lily” and some more about western culture.
Foreignization, in some way, has an active effect on cross-cultural communication. However, some translators usually take the readers’ acceptable abilities into account to turn against it. They consider that readers may feel difficult to understand or even misunderstand the source text in a foreignized translation. In fact, readers are active. If they find some foreign elements in the translation that they have never contacted before, they will try to understand and accept it actively in terms of the contexts or notes. In this way, they also can enrich their own reading experience. With the increasing development of cultural communication, target readers should become more and more interested in foreign culture, so to some extent, domestication is not good for readers to know more cultural information of the source language. Therefore, translators should believe in the capability of the target readers. In the end, it is necessary to point out that putting more emphasis on foreignization doesn’t mean to deny or reject domestication, for both the two strategies are a pair of contradictory unity. However, with the development of cultural globalization, putting more emphasis on foreignization will be more helpful for the cultural communication among different nations. Venuti thought that fluent domesticating translation made translators suffer from “invisibility” and the difference between cultures had also been covered, so the target language readers will lose “strangeness”, i.e., “the target language readers cannot feel the original style and cultural differences in domesticating translation”[12]p 25. Sun Zhili stated that domestication mainly embodies in “the level of pure language” and foreignization “in the level of culture”. “Since the exchanges of cultural information among different countries become more and more frequent and people from all over the world communicate with each other increasingly frequently, foreignization should be foregrounded”[13]p42. In my opinion, foreignization should be considered more in order to reproduce culture differences in the target language.
3. In translating Chinese idioms into English, foreignization should be the leading translation strategy
3.1 Foreignization is helpful to reproduce Chinese culture in translating Chinese idioms
Chinese idioms mainly come from Chinese ancient fables, fairy tales, historical events and allusions. They bear rich and colorful Chinese unique culture. Since the open-door policy has been issued and cultural communication between China and foreign countries becomes more and more frequent, Chinese culture has been gradually understood and accepted by more and more foreigners and Chinese idioms, as one part of Chinese culture, also have been appreciated. Therefore, the translation of Chinese idioms becomes an important part of translation of culture. In translating Chinese idioms into English, translators should reserve Chinese culture and reproduce it in target texts. And translators should choose foreignization as the first translation strategy, for foreignization is helpful to reproduce the cultural features and information of Chinese idioms in translation. That is to say, in translating Chinese idioms into English, translators should reserve as much as possible the cultural features of Chinese idioms and translate the connotations of them as well. If translators choose domestication in translating Chinese idioms into English, it would be unlikely for English readers to contact with the cultural flavor of Chinese idioms. Meanwhile, it would not help to retain Chinese culture and promote cultural communication.
Take “巧媳妇难为无米之炊”as an example. If it is translated into “Even the cleverest housewife can’t make bread without flour.” Chinese cultural features have failed to be retained though English readers can understand it easily. In this way, English readers will not know what “rice” means to Chinese people and even think that “bread” is the main food of both Chinese and themselves. If so, it will not good for communicating. Therefore, the idiom should be translated into “Even the cleverest housewife can’t cook a meal without rice.” In this way, the cultural concept of “rice” is reserved and the cultural feature of the idiom is reproduced. Here is another example, “穷棒子闹翻身是八仙过海各显神通”. It can be translated into “The way we poor folks try to emancipate ourselves, is just like the way the Eight Fairies crossed the sea each displaying his own talent.”[14] p143-144 In this way, the image of “the Eight Fairies” has been reserved and the connotations of it “each displaying his own talent” has been translated. Of course, translators can add an extra explanation to introduce“八仙”to English readers for knowing more about the idiom, i.e., “The Eight Fairies” is the eight immortals of Taoism in Chinese folklore.
3.2 Several commonly used techniques of foreignization in translating Chinese idioms
3.2.1 Literal translation
In the translation of Chinese idioms, literal translation means that in the condition of not invading the English cultural conventions and not causing the misunderstanding and disassociations, translation should completely preserve the image, figurative and cultural features of Chinese idioms in order to pursue the conformity of both the contents and expressions[15]p70.
Chinese idioms, as we know, contain one of the deepest cultures of Chinese. It bears lots of cultural features and message. Therefore, translators should have a deep knowledge of Chinese idioms before doing translation. With the correct understanding of Chinese idioms, translators should translate the idioms with the guide of cultural reproduction, that is to say, translators should retain cultures of the idioms into English. During translation, translators should translate not only the image and meaning of the idioms but also the cultural connotations.
(1) 七嘴八舌－with seven mouths and eight tongues
The Chinese idiom “七嘴八舌” may be translated into “have a loose tongue”. If so, English readers may know the meaning easily. However, they cannot perceive particular way Chinese people use to describe “noisy”. If it is translated into “with seven mouths and eight tongues”, English readers may take much more interest in it and try to understand what “seven mouths and eight tongues” really means. In this way, not only will they find out its meaning sooner or later, they also can really learn more about Chinese culture.
(2) 东风压倒西风－the east wind subdued the west wind
“东风压倒西风”, it is usually translated into “the east wind subdued the west wind” or “the east wind prevails the west wind” via literal translation. Here, the image of “东风” and “西风”has been kept in translation. Maybe some people doubt that English readers cannot understand it, for “the west wind” in England is different from that in China, and they may not know what “the east wind” is. In fact, reserving the image of “东风,西风”is to carry out the difference between Chinese and English. Because of the difference, we need communication, and with the communication, English readers can really know what the real Chinese culture is contained in the idiom. Therefore, translating “东风压倒西风”directly into English, from the view of translation of culture, is acceptable and necessary, for the whole meaning, image and culture behind it have been reserved and spread in translation.
(3) 一寸光阴,一寸金－an inch of time is an inch of gold
In addition, translators should translate not only the denotations but also the connotations of Chinese idioms. “一寸光阴,一寸金”should be translated into “an inch of time is an inch of gold”. Here, “gold” is one of the most precious metals in China, so “time” is “gold”. But in western countries, people think “money” is the most important article in life. There is a saying in English: “time is money”. In fact, the meaning of the two sayings is the same. However, “an inch of time is an inch of gold” is a better translation, for the cultural information of “一寸光阴一寸金”can be transferred directly and faithfully into English and the features of Chinese culture has been reproduced in translation.
From the examples mentioned above, we can see that literal translation is the first choice of translating Chinese idioms, for it can not only reserve the image, style and meaning of Chinese idioms but also reconstruct Chinese cultural features and information as much as possible.
3.2.2 Literal translation with a note
From the view of cultural translation, translation is to promote the communication of culture, so during translating Chinese idioms translators can translate the idioms directly first and then plus a note to present the readers the stories lying behind the idioms so as to enhance understanding. To some extent, it will make English readers know more about Chinese culture quickly and clearly and even take more interests in Chinese culture exists behind the idioms. This will be also helpful to promote cultural communication between Chinese and English. Here are a few examples:
(4) “难道这也是个傻丫头,又像颦儿来葬花不成?”因又自笑道 “若真也葬花,可谓东施效颦了;不但不为新奇,而是更是讨厌”(Dream of the Red Chamber, Chapter 34).
东施效颦－Dong Shi imitating Xi Shi
Here, “东施效颦”should be directly translated into “Dong Shi imitating Xi Shi” in order to let English readers truly contact the image of the idiom. After that, translators may give a simple introduction about “东施效颦”. i.e., Dong Shi imitating Xi Shi, which is a Zhuangzi's story of the beautiful Xi Shi's ugly neighbor, who endeavors to imitate the little frown that people ran from her in terror. In this way, English readers can know not only who “Dong Shi” and “Xi Shi” are but also what the idiom really means. In this way, Chinese culture can be reproduced clearly in translation.
(5) 叶公好龙－Lord Sheh’s love of dragons
“叶公好龙”, here it can be translated into “Lord Sheh’s love of dragons” and a concise explanation can be added after it: Sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them, but when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightened out of his wits.
(6) 破镜重圆－a broken mirror made whole again
“破镜重圆” should be translated into “a broken mirror made whole again”. However, English readers may feel puzzled about the meaning and cannot understand why a broken mirror can be “whole again”. So a short note is needed: In the Northern and Southern Dynasties when the State of Chen (A.D. 557－589) was facing its demise, Xu Deyan, husband of the princess, broke a bronze mirror into halves. Each of them kept a half as tokens in case they were separated. Soon afterwards, they did lose touch with each other, but the two halves of the mirror enabled them to be reunited. In this way, the idiom’s deeper meaning can be known expressively.
3.2.3 Literal translation with additional remarks
This kind of method is different from the above one. In some way, the images and cultural meanings of idioms can be directly transferred into English during translation. Additional remarks usually embodies in phases, one or two short sentences.
(7) 目不识丁－one does not recognize 丁, one of the simplest character in Chinese
Some people consider that the character “丁” should be translated into “ABC”. However, “丁” reflects the unique Chinese character culture. If it is translated into “ABC”, the exact meaning of “丁” and the culture behind it cannot be reconstructed explicitly in English. On the other hand, for the sake of making English readers understand and know more about Chinese characters, a brief illustration is needed here. The character丁 is a very simple one for the Chinese. By explaining in this way, the reader can get the connotation while perceiving the image of Chinese character.
(8) 泥菩萨过河－the clay idol fording the river
“泥菩萨过河”it is a special Chinese idiom. Translators can firstly translate it directly into “the clay idol fording the river”. Such a translation preserves the vivid feature of the idiom. And secondly, translators should pulse an additional remark to explain the exact meaning of the idiom, i.e., “it is more than one can do to save himself from disaster.” In this way, the features of Chinese culture can be retained in translation and English readers also can appreciate the whole idiom better.
(9) 临时抱佛脚－to embrace Buddha’s feet in one’s hour of need—to seek help at the last moment
In western countries, many people believe in Christ. Therefore, they cannot easily understand what “临时抱佛脚” really means if it is translated into “to embrace Buddha’s feet in one’s hour of need”. Perhaps they would be confused about what “Buddha’s feet” is. So a short explanation is necessarily added after it, that is, “to seek help at the last moment”. By illustrating in this way, they can understand the idiom more exactly.
3.2.4 Literal translation pulsing free translation
Sometimes, in order to express more exactly and effectively about Chinese idioms, translators may choose free translation as a secondary tool to transfer the connotations of Chinese idioms more completely. Of course, translators should use literal translation first to preserve the image and expressions of the idioms and then take free translation into account to reproduce the cultural connotations of Chinese idioms more completely. Examples are as follows:
(10) 风餐露宿－braving the wind and dew
Here “风”and“露” can be translated directly into “wind” and “dew”, but“餐” and“宿” here cannot be translated straight into English counterparts “have a meal” and “stay overnight. Therefore, translators have to translate“餐” and“宿” into “braving”. Such a translation not only preserves the original features but also make the connotations accepted completely.
(11) 戴着斗笠亲嘴,差着一帽子－it’s like kissing in straw helmets—the lips are far apart!
We can see from the example that the former part is translated directly into English, and the latter one “差着一帽子” , we cannot translate it by literal translation. Chinese “斗笠” is different from English “hats or caps”. The straw helmets have wider edges than hats and caps. And two persons wearing helmets may be separated far away while it would not happen when they wear hats or caps. Therefore, if it is translated into “separated by a hat”, English readers will fail to understand why. In this case, we can translate it into English by free translation, that is, “the lips are far apart!”
3.2.5 Rhetorical transference
Many Chinese idioms contain not only rich cultural information but also beautiful rhetoric. During translation, translators should not only preserve the images, expressions and cultural connotations but also take the rhetoric methods into consideration. When we read some Chinese idioms, we appreciate not only the contents but also the excellent rhetoric. Therefore, translators should have much knowledge about these features of Chinese idioms and try to transfer the rhetoric as much as possible.
(12) 嘴上无毛,说话不牢－downy lips make thoughtless slips
“毛”and “牢”, are rhymed words and there is a jingle in the phrase. When it is translated into “Downy lips make thoughtless slips”, “lips” and “slips” are also rhymed words and such a translation reserves the rhetoric effect as well as the form.
These five kinds of translation skills are chosen according to the strategy of foreignization translation in translating Chinese idioms into English. From the view of cultural translation, they are useful and proper skills for translators to reproduce Chinese culture in translation and they are helpful for translators to spread Chinese culture. In some way, they are beneficial for promoting communication between Chinese and English.
Conclusion
The purpose of translating Chinese idioms into English is to reproduce culture of Chinese idioms towards foreign countries. From the perspective of cultural translation, translation of Chinese idioms should be foreignized translation. Since the cultural communication between English and Chinese becomes more and more frequent, foreignization should be paid more attention. Increasing proper usage of foreignization can not only reproduce the Chinese culture to foreigners and let them know more about Chinese culture but also be helpful to promote the cultural communication between Chinese and English. During translation, of course, translators cannot use only one strategy or one kind of skill; “‘cultural reproduction’ can also be limited because of some other translation elements” [16] p287. However, to be a translator, the most important thing for him is that he should have a deep cultural sense during translation. And translators should remember that translation is to reproduce culture of the source language and the purpose is to promote cultural translation.
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